Works on medicine. How to write a scientific paper on medicine. Sergei Petrovich Botkin

Avicenna (980-1037) - an outstanding Central Asian scientist, philosopher, and doctor. His real name is Abu Ali Hussein Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina. He was born in the village of Avshana, near Bukhara.

Ibn Sina was a scientist obsessed with the spirit of research and the desire for an encyclopedic coverage of all branches of knowledge contemporary to him. The philosopher was distinguished by his phenomenal memory and sharpness of thought. His independence of judgment in science was in complete harmony with his indifference to the impression that his penchant for sensual pleasures could make on the faithful. The bibliography of the scientist’s works includes 276 titles. The central place among them is occupied by the “Canon of Medical Science”. This is an essay in which Ibn Sina summarized and systematized both the medical knowledge accumulated by his time and his own experience as a practicing physician in five books. The last years of his life (1024-37) spent in Isfahan were the most fruitful for Ibn Sina. It was here that he completed his encyclopedic Book of Healing and created other important philosophical works: the Book of Salvation, the Book of Knowledge, the Book of Directions and Notes, Eastern Philosophy and the Book of Fair Trials. The wandering life ultimately brought his death closer. His fatal illness (colic) began during the unsuccessful military actions of Alya ad-Daula, which he took against one of the Ghaznavid commanders. Abu Ali died when he was 56 years and 10 months old.

Medical achievements of Avicenna

medicine biological astronomy Avicenna

The main medical works of Ibn Sina:

“The Canon of Medical Science” (“Kitab al-Qanun fi-t-tibb”) is an encyclopedic work in which the prescriptions of ancient physicians are interpreted and revised in accordance with the achievements of Arab medicine. In the Canon, Ibn Sina suggested that diseases could be caused by some tiny creatures. He was the first to draw attention to the contagiousness of smallpox, determined the difference between cholera and plague, described leprosy, separating it from other diseases, and studied a number of other diseases. There are many translations of the Canon of Medicine into Latin. In the “Canon”, two books out of five are devoted to the description of medicinal raw materials, medicines, methods of their manufacture and use. Of the 2600 medicines described in the “Canon”, 1400 are of plant origin.

“Medicines” (“Al-Adwiyat al Kalbiya”) - written during the first visit to Hamadan. The work details the role of the heart in the occurrence and manifestation of pneuma, features of the diagnosis and treatment of heart diseases.

“Removing harm from various manipulations through corrections and prevention of errors” (“Daf al-mazorr al kulliya an al-abdon al insonia bi-tadorik anvo hato an-tadbir”).

“On the benefits and harms of wine” (“Siyosat al-badan wa fazoil ash-sharob wa manofi’ih wa mazorich”) is the shortest treatise by Ibn Sina.

“Poem about Medicine” (“Urjusa fit-tib”).

“Treatise on the Pulse” (“Risolai Nabziya”).

“Events for travelers” (“Fi tadbir al-musofirin”).

“Treatise on Sexual Power” (“Risola fil-l-boh”) - describes the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of sexual disorders.

“Treatise on Vinegar Honey” (“Risola fi-s-sikanjubin”) - describes the preparation and medicinal use of mixtures of vinegar and honey of various compositions.

“Treatise on Chicory” (“Risola fil-hindabo”).

During Ibn Sina’s lifetime, the extensive work of the founder and head of the hospital in Baghdad, Ali ibn Abbas, entitled “The King’s Book,” enjoyed great fame. One of the immediate predecessors of the “Canon” was the 30-volume work of Abu Bakar al-Razi, “A Comprehensive Book of Medicine.” However, these works suffered from common shortcomings. The information presented in them was not sufficiently systematized, the results of observations were intertwined with obvious fiction, and the recommendations were supplemented with mystical interpretations. The structure of the books was very unclear, and the presentation was so complex that only a sufficiently experienced doctor could use them.

Ibn Sina, while working on the book, set himself the task of avoiding the mistakes of his predecessors and coped with it, creating one of the largest encyclopedic works in the history of medicine - “The Canon of Medical Science.”

The Canon of Medicine is one of the most famous books in the history of medicine. Essentially, this is an entire medical encyclopedia, examining with great completeness (within the limits of knowledge of that time) everything that relates to human health and illness.

This major work, which includes about 200 printed sheets, was already translated from Arabic into Latin in the twelfth century and circulated in many manuscripts. When the printing press was invented, the Canon was among the first printed books, and rivaled the Bible in the number of editions. The Latin text of the “Canon of Medicine” was first published in 1473, and the Arabic text in 1543. The exact date for the completion of work on “Canon” has not been established. Presumably it was 1020.

“The Canon of Medical Science” is an extensive work consisting of 5 books.

Book 1 describes theoretical medicine. The book is divided into four parts. The first part defines medicine, the second deals with diseases, the third deals with maintaining health, and the fourth deals with methods of treatment.

Book 2 describes “simple” medicines and sets out Ibn Sina’s teachings about medicines, their nature, and their testing. 811 products of plant, animal and mineral origin are arranged alphabetically, indicating their action, methods of use, collection and storage rules.

Book 3, the most extensive, is devoted to pathology and therapy - a description of individual diseases and their treatment. Each section is provided with an anatomical and topographical introduction.

Book 4 is devoted to surgery, the treatment of dislocations and fractures, and the general doctrine of fever (crises in illness). It talks about tumors, purulent inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue, as well as infectious diseases. The main issues of the doctrine of poisons are covered.

Book 5 contains a description of “complex” medicines, as well as poisons and antidotes.

Pharmacy and pharmacology represent an attempt to combine the collected numerous materials into a system and connect them with clinical observations. The medicines recommended in the “Canons of Medical Science” are varied, many of them later became part of scientific pharmacology.

In Avicenna’s “Canon” there were also chapters devoted to physical exercise, which he called “the most important condition” for maintaining health; in the next place he put diet and sleep patterns. Ibn Sina devoted special chapters of the “Canon of Medical Science” to the upbringing and care of a child. They contain many subtle observations and sound advice. Another strong point of the “Canon of Medical Science” is the accurate description of the clinical picture of diseases and the subtleties of diagnosis. The first descriptions of a number of clinical phenomena and their explanations speak of Ibn Sina’s extraordinary powers of observation, his talent and experience. In diagnosis, Ibn Sina used palpation, observation of the pulse, determination of moisture or dryness of the skin, examination of urine and feces.

Ibn Sina worked a lot on problems of psychology, and mental disorders interested him not only from a purely medical standpoint, but also as an object of psychological research. Apparently, this is the reason why, when describing mental disorders, he sets out in detail his views on the nature of mental processes and the causes of their violation. In the idea of the essence of mental processes, the materialistic aspects of Ibn Sina’s philosophy are especially clearly manifested: no one has ever had such a clear idea of the connection between individual mental processes and the function of certain areas of the brain. Suffice it to recall, for example, Ibn Sina’s instructions that bruises that destroy certain parts of the brain upset sensitivity and cause loss of certain functions. Completely rejecting demonological views on the essence of mental illness, Ibn Sina considered the direct cause of mental disorders to be either the influence of environmental conditions or physical disorders. At the same time, elucidating the relationships and mutual influence of the mental and somatic, apparently, was of particular interest to Ibn Sina: the “Canon” contains indications of the possibility of the occurrence of psychosis in acute febrile illnesses, the connection of gastrointestinal tract disorders with mental experiences (“strong grief”, anger, grief, etc.).

Systematicity and logic were noted as great advantages of the “Canon” even by those who were inclined to downplay the importance of Ibn Sina in the history of medicine. The success of the “Canon of Medical Science” was due to the clarity, persuasiveness, simplicity of describing the clinical picture of diseases, and the accuracy of therapeutic and dietary prescriptions. These features quickly created enormous popularity for the Canon, and ensured its author “autocratic power for five centuries throughout the medical world of the Middle Ages.”

First of all, the “Canon of Medical Science” brought him worldwide fame and immortality. A century after the death of the author, the “Canon” becomes known in the West. Already in the 12th century. it was translated from Arabic into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187), in the 13th century. - into Hebrew and was distributed in many manuscripts. After the invention of printing in the 15th century. Among the first publications was “Canon”. It is noteworthy that its first edition appeared in 1473 in Strasbourg, one of the centers of Renaissance humanism. Then, in terms of frequency of publications, it competed with the Bible - only in the last 27 years of the 15th century. “The Canon” went through 16 editions, and in total it was published about 40 times in full and countless times in excerpts. For five centuries, the “Canon” served as a reference book for doctors in many countries of Asia and Europe. In all the oldest universities in Europe, the study and teaching of medicine was based on the work of Ibn Sina.

Separate parts of the “Canon” were translated into European languages, but there was no complete translation. The staff of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, responding to the call of the World Peace Council (1952) to celebrate throughout the world the 1000th anniversary of the birth (according to the lunar calendar) of Ibn Sina, began translations from Arabic into Russian and Uzbek languages of the main medical works of the great scientist. This ambitious work was successfully completed in 1961 with the publication of the complete text of the “Canon” in both languages.

Avicenna could diagnose and cure 2,000 different ailments. Today, about 5,000 diseases are known, but modern doctors often limit themselves to treating their consequences and getting rid of symptoms. The medications used destroy the body's immunity and resistance. While Ibn Sina, back in the Middle Ages, seriously thought about restoring the natural balance. He argued that an externally manifested disease necessarily has internal causes, and the symptoms indicate the action of the body’s own forces that manifest these signs, and he looked for ways to stimulate them to fight the disease.

Ibn Sina paid great attention to physical exercise, calling it the most important condition for health. In the next place he put diet and sleep patterns. He wrote that “the main thing in the art of maintaining harmony is balancing the necessary factors: balance of nature; food choice; cleaning of excess; maintaining physique; improving what is inhaled through the nose; adaptation of clothing; balance of physical and mental movement.”

Tips on how to preserve your eyesight: to maintain visual acuity, you need to look less at small objects and not sleep for a long time, lying on the back of your head. Prolonged reading of very small writing, as well as delicate work performed for a long time, can lead to a decrease in visual acuity. Sleeping on a full stomach, sleeping too long or prolonged insomnia can damage your vision. To maintain eye health, it is necessary to protect them from dust, smoke, cold or too hot wind. You should also not look at the same object for a long time without turning away. Frequent consumption of sweet pomegranate juice, squeezed with pulp and boiled with honey in a baking oven, has a good effect. Drunkenness, gluttony, and frequent copulation are considered harmful to vision.

Health-improving exercises: Ibn Sina wrote in his work about the role and place of physical exercise in health-improving and therapeutic practice. He gave a definition of physical exercise - voluntary movements leading to continuous, deep breathing.

He argued that if a person exercises moderately and in a timely manner and follows the regimen, then he does not need any treatment or medication. Having stopped these activities, he withers away. Physical exercise strengthens muscles, ligaments, and nerves. He advised taking age and health into account when practicing. He spoke about massage, hardening with cold and hot water. Only feudal lords could take advantage of Avicenna’s recommendations.

The health-improving physical education invented by him is still alive today and has been helping people for a thousand years.

Astronomy

In astronomy, Ibn Sina criticized Aristotle's ideas that stars reflect light from the Sun, arguing that stars glow with their own light, however, he believed that planets also glow themselves. Claimed that he observed the passage of Venus across the disk of the Sun on May 24, 1032. However, modern scientists doubt that he could have observed this passage at the indicated time in the indicated place. He used this observation to argue that Venus, at least sometimes, is closer to the Earth than the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology.

Ibn Sina also wrote the Compendium of the Almagest, with commentaries on the book of Ptolemy.

While in Gurgan, Ibn Sina wrote a treatise on determining the longitude of this city. Ibn Sina was unable to use the method used by Abu-l-Wafa and al-Biruni, and proposed a new method consisting of measuring the culmination height of the Moon and comparing it with the height in Baghdad by calculations according to the rules of spherical trigonometry.

In “The Book on the Method Preferred to Other Methods in the Construction of an Observational Instrument,” Ibn Sina described the observational instrument he invented, which in his opinion was supposed to replace the astrolabe; This instrument used the vernier principle for the first time to refine measurements.

Medieval scholars and writers from the Muslim East were known in Europe by short names or nicknames. The Persian Avicenna is no exception. His real name can be abbreviated as Ibn Sina.

Childhood

The future scientist was born in 980, near Bukhara, in Central Asia. From early childhood, the child was distinguished by his intelligence and intelligence. By the age of ten he knew the Koran perfectly. At the Bukhara school, he first studied legislation, and later philosophy, logic and geometry. This was the heyday of Muslim science. Eastern scientists turned out to be several steps ahead compared to European medieval monks. One of them, Abu Abdallah Natili, took on the task of teaching the promising teenager.

Avicenna, whose biography was later marked by numerous independent discoveries, quickly left the tutelage of mentors and began to study alone. Aristotle's book Metaphysics had a great influence on the 16-year-old boy.

Philosophical views

Many principles laid down by the ancient Greek philosopher in his works became guidelines for the Persian follower. He was not alone in his research. Similar views were shared by Al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd and Al-Farabi. This school was called “Eastern Aristotelianism.” Avicenna, whose biography is full of various discoveries, became its key supporter.

His works display a strict style of presentation, subordinate to logic. In Muslim theology it is called “akl”. According to Avicenna's views, Allah was a perpetual motion machine of ideas and forms. He also criticized anthropomorphism. An important principle of Eastern Aristotelianism was peace. According to her, the Earth was the heart of the Universe, and all other celestial bodies revolved around it.

In Bukhara

Young Ibn Sina became the doctor of the Bukhara emir thanks to his deep knowledge of medicine. In addition, he received access to all then known literary works on this topic. The young scientist communicated a lot with local Turkic residents, thanks to which he mastered this language. However, his service ended after the Turkic tribes captured Bukhara and overthrew the then ruling Samanid dynasty. This happened in 1002.

In Khorezm

After this, Avicenna, whose biography as a scientist had just begun, went to the city of Urgench. It was the center of Khorezm, a rich and important region. Here the philosopher and doctor continued to hone his education. He received an important task - to draw up a set of laws for the unified state of Khorezm. He managed to cope with his task. The vizier, as well as the shah, closely watched the young courtier.

Avicenna had to deal with the inertia and servility of the local teachers from the State Council. They lived according to the Koran and sharply resisted any innovations in the life of Khorezm. The young scientist had to conduct long disputes and disputes with the elders, who did not want to hear about any reforms. Only thanks to the pressure of youth and the help of the Shah, Ibn Sina was able to push through his project, achieving wide recognition not only in Khorezm, but also beyond its borders.

However, when Mahmud of Ghazni came to power in 1008, Avicenna refused to serve at his court. This led to his exile and long wanderings.

Last years

Eventually the scientist arrived in the Persian city of Hamadan, where he lived for about 10 years. He managed to cure the local emir, for which he received the title of vizier. Because of this, the philosopher often conflicted with various parties at the ruler’s court and the military. It was in Hamadan that he entered politics and began working in the civil service.

The most fruitful years in terms of scientific pursuits occurred during the life of Ibn Sina in Isfaan. The local emir provided him with all the conditions for productive activities. It was here that Avicenna, whose biography is known for his numerous wanderings and travels, found peace and began writing his main books. Some of them died during the invasion of enemy troops. Nevertheless, the legacy of the Persian writer has reached our times in large quantities. It consists of many treatises on medicine, chemistry, astronomy, and mechanics.

Avicenna died in 1037 after suffering from a stomach illness. His ashes were placed in the Isfahan mausoleum, where local emirs also found their final rest.

Medical work

Avicenna's biography is best known for his encyclopedic reference book, The Canon of Medicine. Arab and Persian doctors studied according to it until the 17th century. The work was divided by the author into five books.

The first of them is devoted to the theory of medicine. The writer examined the concepts of diseases, as well as the causes of their occurrence. He identified the symptoms of such terrible diseases as cholera, plague, smallpox and leprosy. Subsequent books talk about various simple medicines, including plants.

Medical research, which fills Avicenna’s biography, also allowed him to write and publish various treatises on a wide range of issues. They concerned a healthy lifestyle, heart disease, pulse, blood vessels, proper nutrition, etc. The doctor promoted various physical exercises, which, in his opinion, should prolong a person’s life.

Ibn Sina's research covered not only the physical, but also the psychological state of a person. The doctor in his works described four types of character - hot, cold, wet and dry. This classification largely corresponds to the European one, where the temperament of choleric, phlegmatic, etc. is present.

Avicenna also described complex human natures. According to his theory, the character depended on which fluid predominated in the body - blood, mucus or bile.

The versatile activities of the scientist have always attracted researchers to such a figure as Avicenna. His biography, photos of his written works and vivid adventures often appear in a variety of textbooks.

Philologist and music theorist

The Persian scientist Avicenna, whose biography is known to every compatriot, often wrote his scientific works and publications in the form of poetic poems. This style was popular in the Muslim East. Interestingly, the scientist was also interested in music. He is the author of several works on the theory of composition. He classified music as a mathematical science and spoke in his works about the laws governing the construction of musical works.

The instruments known at that time were described and classified in one of the books, the author of which was Avicenna. The scientist (the Persian’s biography allowed him to attend many official events where concerts were held) laid the foundations of musical science. It did not become widespread in its homeland, but in Europe in modern times the numerous researches of the medieval researcher were rethought. Various theorists were then interested in the biography of Avicenna. In short, his works became the foundation for modern music theory.

The main medical works of Ibn Sina:

“Removing harm from various manipulations through corrections and prevention of errors” (“Daf al-mazorr al kulliya an al-abdon al insonia bi-tadorik anvo hato an-tadbir”).

“On the benefits and harms of wine” (“Siyosat al-badan wa fazoil ash-sharob wa manofi’ih wa mazorich”) is the shortest treatise by Ibn Sina.

“Poem about Medicine” (“Urjusa fit-tib”).

“Treatise on the Pulse” (“Risolai Nabziya”).

“Events for travelers” (“Fi tadbir al-musofirin”).

“Treatise on Sexual Power” (“Risola fil-l-boh”) - describes the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of sexual disorders.

“Treatise on Vinegar Honey” (“Risola fi-s-sikanjubin”) - describes the preparation and medicinal use of mixtures of vinegar and honey of various compositions. philosopher Avicenna medical work

“Treatise on Chicory” (“Risola fil-hindabo”).

“Blood vessels for bloodletting” (“Risola fil-uruk al-mafsuda”).

“Risola-yi Judiya” describes the treatment of diseases of the ear, stomach, and teeth. In addition, it describes hygiene problems. Some researchers dispute Avicenna's authorship.

Ibn Sina's merits were especially great in the field of medicine. He is rightly considered one of the greatest medical scientists in the history of mankind. According to various sources, the total number of medical works of Ibn Sina reaches 50, but about 30 of them have been preserved in the power of 8. According to their content, they can be divided (with the exception of the “Canon”) conditionally into three groups: 1) works of a general nature, in which certain branches of medicine and some of its theoretical issues are covered; 2) works on diseases of any one organ or one specific disease, for example, on heart disease and means of its treatment, on disease of the colon (kulanj), on disorders of the genital organs; 3) works on medicinal science.

However, Ibn Sina’s main medical work, which brought him centuries-long fame throughout the cultural world, is the “Canon of Medical Science.” This is a truly medical encyclopedia, in which everything related to the prevention and treatment of diseases is presented with logical order. In the “Canon of Medical Science”, as well as in a number of special works on medicinal science (“Book on Medicines for Heart Diseases”, “On the Properties of Chicory”, “On the Properties of Vinegar - Lida”, etc.). Ibn Sina not only united the disparate experience of the past and supplemented it with the results of his own observations, but also formed a number of fundamental provisions of a rational formation. If Ibn Abbaz (930-994) pointed out favorable conditions for testing their effects in a hospital, then Ibn Sina proposes a system for testing them, including observing their effects at the patient’s bedside, conducting experiments on animals, and even some semblance of a clinical trial. At the same time, Ibn Sina considers the most reliable experimental way to test the effect of medicines and proposes “conditions” that ensure the “purity of the experiment.” The “Canon of Medical Science” contains instructions on the need to identify the side effects of drugs, the presence of their mutual strengthening and mutual weakening of the effects of drugs when they are prescribed together.

Ibn Sina associated the development of rational pharmacy with the use of chemically obtained drugs. This idea, which was shared by some Arab and Central Asian scientists and doctors (Jabir ibn Hayyan; Razi, Biruni, etc.), was further developed by alchemists of medieval Europe, as well as doctors of the Renaissance and Modern times. Ibn Sina described many new medicines of plant, animal and mineral origin. In particular, the first use of mercury, which in the 10th century, is associated with his name. was mined in the vicinity of Bukhara to treat syphilis. He also described the manifestations of mercury stomatitis as a side effect of mercury. From the list of medicines attached to Book Two of the “Canon of Medical Science,” about 150 were listed in the first eight editions of the Russian Pharmacopoeia.

Being the product of an ancient highly developed culture, Central Asian medicine largely determined the level and originality of medicine in the Arab East. The generalizing encyclopedic works of Central Asian doctors greatly contributed to the preservation and development of the achievements of ancient medicine (ancient, Hellenistic, Indian, Iranian, Central Asian), understanding and synthesis of their rich practical experience and theoretical concepts. Similar to the generalizing works of Arab doctors, some Central Asian honey. Encyclopedic works were translated into European languages and played an important role in the development of medicine in Europe. This primarily applies to the “Canon of Medical Science” by Ibn Sina, which was undoubtedly the most popular of medicine. books created in the East. For several centuries, the “Canon” served as the main teaching aid in European universities, having a huge impact on the level of specialized knowledge of doctors in medieval Europe. Advanced Central Asian scientists - philosophers, doctors, natural scientists - were the heralds of a number of new ideas that received recognition and development only a few centuries later. These include attempts to introduce the experimental method into pathology and medicine, the affirmation of the natural scientific essence of medicine as a field of scientific and practical activity, the idea of the connection between medicine and chemistry, the relationship of the body with the environment and the role of this environment in pathology, the inextricable connection between the mental and the physical, the assumption Ibn Sina about invisible creatures that can cause febrile diseases and spread through air, water and soil, etc. Advanced doctors and scientists of Central Asia actively opposed the superstitions that reigned in modern medicine, rejected astral ideas, magical digitology, the healing properties of precious stones, spells, amulets, contrasting rational means of diagnosis, therapy and hygiene. However, all their efforts remained primarily a “voice crying in the wilderness.” Most representatives of honey professions willingly used, and sometimes preferred, magical and mystical techniques to methods of rational diagnosis and therapy, for the most part leaving the fate of their patients to the will of Allah. As for new ideas, they found few adherents. Of course, those of the Central Asian doctors and scientists who were the pride of medicine in Central Asia - Biruni, Masihi, Ibn Sina, al-Jurjani (c. 1080-1141), Fakhraddin Razi, Umar Chagmini and others - could not completely overcome the constraining influence feudal worldview. They considered the works of the ancients, with the exception of some particulars, to be the highest authority. Not one of them doubted the validity of the natural philosophical doctrine of the four juices. Everyone adhered to the anatomical and physiological ideas of Galen. None of them studied anatomy, without the development of which the construction of rational physiology and pathology was unthinkable. The reasons that did not allow doctors of the Muslim East to study human anatomy are well known, and humoralistic concepts, containing elements of dialectics and a materialistic, albeit eclectic, explanation of life activity and the mechanisms of development of pathological processes, are immeasurably more progressive than the “medicine of the prophet.” The era did not allow them to “step over themselves.” And, if for the history of medicine the most outstanding achievements of the largest doctors of Central Asia are, first of all, their invaluable new ideas, which were significantly ahead of their time, then for their contemporaries and immediate descendants the most significant and significant were their achievements in the field of practical medicine - diagnostics, clinics, treatment, hygiene.

The work of Ibn Sina occupies a special place in the history of culture. The greatest physician and thinker of his time, he was already recognized by his contemporaries, and the honorary title “Sheikh-ar-rais” (mentor of scientists), assigned to him during his lifetime, accompanied his name for many centuries. The philosophical and natural scientific works of Ibn Sina were widely known in the countries of East and Western Europe, despite the fact that his main philosophical work, “The Book of Healing,” was declared heretical and burned in Baghdad in 1160. The “Canon of Medical Science” immortalized his name ” was translated many times into many European languages, published about 30 times in Latin and served as a mandatory guide to medicine for European universities and hospitals for more than 500 years. schools of the Arab East.

Of Ibn Sina’s 274 works, only 20 are devoted to medicine. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that of all the areas of knowledge in which Ibn Sina worked, he made the greatest contribution to medicine. First of all, the “Canon of Medical Science” brought him worldwide fame and immortality. Each book, in turn, is divided into parts (fan), departments (jumla), articles (makala) and paragraphs (fasl).

Book One sets out the theoretical foundations of medicine and the general principles of practical medicine. It defines the concept of medicine, reveals the tasks of this science, provides the doctrine of juices and nature (temperament), a concise anatomical outline of the so-called “simple” organs of the human body - bones, cartilage, nerves, arteries, veins, tendons, ligaments and muscles. The causes, manifestations and classifications of diseases and general rules for their treatment are considered. The teachings about nutrition, lifestyle (general dietetics) and maintaining health in all periods of life (general and private hygiene) are presented in detail.

Book two is a comprehensive collection of information about medicines used in medical practice of that time. It contains over 800 medicinal substances of plant, animal and mineral origin, indicating their medicinal properties and methods of use. In addition to medicines produced in Central Asia and other countries of the Near and Middle East, the author points out many medicines imported from India, China, Greece, Africa, the islands of the Mediterranean Sea and other areas of the globe. Many of them became known directly or indirectly to medieval Europe through the writings of Ibn Sina, which in itself characterizes the significance of the “Canon” in the history of medicine. This book provides an opportunity to become acquainted not only with scientific, but also with everyday, folk medicine of Ibn Sina’s time. Many medicines proposed by Ibn Sina have become firmly established in the pharmacopoeia and are still used today.

Book Three treats “private” or “local” diseases of human organs, starting from the head and ending with the heels, in other words, it is devoted to private pathology and therapy. It includes descriptions of diseases of the head and brain (including nervous and mental diseases), eyes, ears, nose, mouth, tongue, teeth, gums, lips, throat, lungs, heart, chest, esophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, spleen, intestines, anus, kidneys, bladder, genitals. Each section begins with a detailed anatomical description of the corresponding organ.

Book Four deals with “general” diseases of the body that are not specific to just one organ. These include various fevers (disease crises), tumors (including cancer), acne, wounds, ulcers, burns, fractures and dislocations of bones, wounds and other nerve damage, damage to the skull, chest, spine, and limbs. This Book also talks about chronic and acute infectious diseases: smallpox, measles, leprosy, plague and rabies; The main issues of the doctrine of poisons (toxicology) are covered. A special section of the book is devoted to the issues of preserving the beauty of the body (cosmetics).

Book five of the “Canon” is a pharmacopoeia. It outlines methods for the manufacture and use of various forms of complex drugs. The first part of the Book describes various antidotes (teryaki), medicinal porridges, pills, tablets, powders, syrups, decoctions, infusions, wines, patches, etc., and the second part indicates proven remedies intended for the treatment of specific diseases of the head organs , eyes, ears, teeth, throat, chest and abdominal organs, joints and skin.

He called physical exercise “the most important condition” for maintaining health, followed by diet and sleep patterns. Ibn Sina dedicated special chapters of the “Canon of Medical Science” to the upbringing and care of children. They contain many subtle observations and sound advice. Another strong point of the “Canon of Medical Science” is the accurate description of the clinical picture of diseases and the subtleties of diagnosis. The first descriptions of a number of clinical phenomena and their explanations speak of Ibn Sina’s extraordinary powers of observation, his talent and experience. In diagnosis, Ibn Sina used palpation, observation of the pulse, determination of moisture or dryness of the skin, examination of urine and feces.

Ibn Sina dealt a lot with problems of psychology, and mental disorders interested him not only from a purely medical standpoint, but also as an object of psychological research. Apparently, this is the reason why, when describing mental disorders, he sets out in detail his views on the nature of mental processes and the causes of their violation. In the idea of the essence of mental processes, the materialistic aspects of Ibn Sina’s philosophy are especially clearly manifested: no one has ever had such a clear idea of the connection between individual mental processes and the function of certain areas of the brain. Suffice it to recall, for example, the instructions of Ibn Sina that bruises that destroy certain parts of the brain upset sensitivity and cause loss of certain functions. Completely rejecting demonological views on the essence of mental illness, Ibn Sina considered the direct cause of mental disorders to be either the influence of environmental conditions or physical disorders. At the same time, elucidating the relationships and mutual influence of the mental and somatic, apparently, was of particular interest to Ibn Sina: the “Canon” contains indications of the possibility of the occurrence of psychosis in acute febrile illnesses, the connection of gastrointestinal tract disorders with mental experiences (“severe grief ”, anger, grief, etc.).

A century after the death of the author, the “Canon” becomes known in the West. Already in the 12th century. it was translated from Arabic into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187) in the 13th century. - into Hebrew and was distributed in many manuscripts. After the invention of printing in the 15th century. Among the first publications was “Canon”. It is noteworthy that its first edition appeared in 1473 in Strasbourg, one of the centers of Renaissance humanism. Then, in terms of frequency of publications, it competed with the Bible - only in the last 27 years of the 15th century. “The Canon” went through 16 editions, and in total it was published about 40 times in full and countless times in excerpts. For five centuries, the “Canon” served as a reference book for doctors in many countries of Asia and Europe. In all the oldest universities in Europe until the mid-12th century. the study and teaching of medicine was based on the work of Ibn Sina.

Separate parts of the “Canon” were translated into European languages, but there was no complete translation. The staff of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, responding to the call of the World Peace Council (1952) to celebrate throughout the world the 1000th anniversary of the birth (according to the lunar calendar) of Ibn Sina, began translations from Arabic into Russian and Uzbek languages of the main medical work great scientist. This ambitious work was successfully completed in 1961 with the publication of the complete text of the “Canon” in both languages.

The process of writing a scientific paper on medicine is similar to writing other research papers. The similarities are that this requires you to use reliable sources of information, write in a clear and organized style, and provide strong reasons for the conclusions you reach. A research paper can be scientific data that you collect to study a research problem. If you learn what format to choose, how to properly cite various sources, and what style to write in, you will be able to write an informative and worthwhile research paper.

Steps

Part 1

Conducting research

Choose a topic that really interests you to make the research process more interesting.
Select a topic where questions remain unanswered and offer your solution.

Decide what kind of research paper you want to write. The format of a research paper greatly depends on what type of research paper you are going to write. This also affects the type of research you will have to do.
- Quantitative research consists of original research conducted by the author of the paper. Such research papers should contain the following sections: Hypothesis (or Subject of Study), Past Results, Method, Limitations, Results, Discussion and Application.
- A synthesis work is a review and analysis of an already published work. The authors identify the weaknesses and strengths of the study, apply it to a specific situation, and then point in direction for further research.
Do thorough research on your topic. Ask people who have specific knowledge or experience on the subject. Find reliable sources that support your ideas. Your scientific work is only as reliable as the sources you use. Ideal sources of information are scientific journals, databases and books.
- Keep a record of the sources you use. Write down all the information you need to cite your source: author's name, article title, book or journal title, publisher's name, edition, publication date, volume number, edition number, page number, and anything else that pertains to your source. Various programs like Endnote can help you keep a record of the sources you use.
- Be sure to take detailed notes as you read. Paraphrase the information in your own words, or if you are copying information directly from an article or book, indicate that these are direct quotes by enclosing the information in quotation marks. This will help you avoid plagiarism.
- Maintain records by attributing them to the correct source.
- Your supervisor or librarian can help you find appropriate sources of information.
Organize your notes. As you write your paper, you'll have an easier time finding the information you need if you organize your notes by topic. Using digitized records will allow you to more easily find specific information and quickly organize source data.
- Store your notes in a folder or digitally on your computer.
- Start creating an overall plan for your work using the data you've collected.
Part 2
Writing a paper
1. Make a plan for your work. Organize it so that it is clear and easy to read. Decide what information is best to place under each title or section, and be sure to include your sources. Making an outline is a good start to writing a research paper.
  
  Determine the format in which the work should be written. Before you begin, check the guidelines and formatting requirements. Each journal and institution has different requirements for the length and style of scientific writing. The length of your work will most likely be predetermined. If not, try to write at least 10-20 pages.
  - Use a standard font and font size, such as Times New Roman size 12.
  - The interval should be double.
  - If necessary, create a title page. Many educational institutions require a title page. Include the main topic, footer (a shortened version of the main topic), author's name, subject name and semester.
2. Gather all the data together. Divide the work into logical sections predetermined by the type of research paper. If it is a quantitative study, it should include the above sections (i.e. Hypothesis, Previous Findings, and so on). If it is a qualitative study, divide your work into main points and present them accordingly.
  - Break the information into sections and subsections. Each section should focus on a separate thesis.
  - Include numbers or tables in your sections that support your main idea.
  - If this is a quantitative study, indicate the methods you used to obtain these results.
3. Write an analysis and conclusion. Tell readers what you found, why it is important to the field of study, and what future studies can be done to advance this research. Try not to repeat information that has already been mentioned in the work before.
4. Write the introductory part. The introductory part should be written after the main part of your work is ready. This is to help you understand what needs to be included so that the reader can understand your work. Introduce the reader to the topic of your scientific work. Write why you decided to write this work and what readers can expect from reading it.
  - Write why the problem described in your work is so relevant and important.
  - Discuss what is currently known and what is missing in your field of study.
  - State the purpose of your work.
5. Write a resume. The abstract summarizes the entire article. This is where you should highlight the main points and let the reader understand what information is contained in your work. Write your summary at the very end, after you have written the work itself, to properly summarize everything you have written.
  - Highlight the purpose of the work and the main conclusions.
  - State why your findings are important.
  - Keep the summary of the article brief.
  - A resume usually consists of one paragraph with a length of 250-500 words.
6. When writing an article, do not forget to cite sources. To avoid plagiarism and give authors credit for their ideas, you must cite original sources. It will be much easier for you to add references while you are writing your paper than afterward, when you are rummaging through all the sources trying to determine where you got this or that idea from.
  - If you have not been told how to style your links, then use American Medical Association style.
  - Insert a link at the end of a sentence to indicate that you are using another person's idea. Place them wherever necessary in your work. References must include the author's name, year of publication, and page number.
  - Make a list of references used and add it at the end of the work.
  - To simplify the process of adding links, use specialized programs.
7. Edit your work. You must ensure that your work is logically organized and easy to read.
  - Reread your work several times to make sure it has a logical structure.
  - Review your work for spelling and grammatical errors.
  - Follow the guidelines provided for completing your work.
  - Let others read your work to make sure it is clear and error-free. Make edits if necessary.

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