Four ways to add nucleons
The mechanisms of nucleon addition can be divided into four types, S, P, D and F. These types of addition are reflected by the color background in the version of the table presented by D.I. Mendeleev.
The first type of addition is the S scheme, when nucleons are added to the nucleus along the vertical axis. The display of attached nucleons of this type, in the internuclear space, is now identified as S electrons, although there are no S electrons in this zone, but only spherical regions of space charge that provide molecular interaction.
The second type of addition is the P scheme, when nucleons are added to the nucleus in the horizontal plane. The mapping of these nucleons in the internuclear space is identified as P electrons, although these, too, are just regions of space charge generated by the nucleus in the internuclear space.
The third type of addition is the D scheme, when nucleons are added to neutrons in the horizontal plane, and finally, the fourth type of addition is the F scheme, when nucleons are added to neutrons along the vertical axis. Each type of attachment gives the atom properties characteristic of this type of connection, therefore, in the composition of the periods of the table D.I. Mendeleev has long identified subgroups based on the type of S, P, D and F bonds.
Since the addition of each subsequent nucleon produces an isotope of either the preceding or subsequent element, the exact arrangement of nucleons according to the type of S, P, D and F bonds can only be shown using the Table of Known Isotopes (nuclides), a version of which (from Wikipedia) we used.
We divided this table into periods (see Tables for filling periods), and in each period we indicated according to which scheme each nucleon is added. Since, in accordance with microquantum theory, each nucleon can join the nucleus only in a strictly defined place, the number and patterns of nucleon addition in each period are different, but in all periods of the D.I. table. Mendeleev's laws of nucleon addition are fulfilled UNIFORMLY for all nucleons without exception.
As you can see, in periods II and III, the addition of nucleons occurs only according to S and P schemes, in periods IV and V - according to S, P and D schemes, and in periods VI and VII - according to S, P, D and F schemes. It turned out that the laws of nucleon addition are fulfilled so precisely that it was not difficult for us to calculate the composition of the nucleus of the final elements of the VII period, which are in the table of D.I. Mendeleev's numbers are 113, 114, 115, 116 and 118.
According to our calculations, the last element of the VII period, which we called Rs (“Russia” from “Russia”), consists of 314 nucleons and has isotopes 314, 315, 316, 317 and 318. The element preceding it is Nr (“Novorossiy” from “ Novorossiya") consists of 313 nucleons. We will be very grateful to anyone who can confirm or refute our calculations.
Honestly, we ourselves are amazed at how accurately the Universal Constructor works, which ensures that each subsequent nucleon is attached only to its only correct place, and if the nucleon is placed incorrectly, then the Constructor ensures the disintegration of the atom, and assembles a new atom from its spare parts. In our films, we showed only the main laws of the work of the Universal Designer, but there are so many nuances in his work that to understand them will require the efforts of many generations of scientists.
But humanity needs to understand the laws of the work of the Universal Designer if it is interested in technological progress, since knowledge of the principles of the work of the Universal Designer opens up completely new prospects in all areas of human activity - from the creation of unique structural materials to the assembly of living organisms.
Filling out the second period of the table of chemical elements
Filling out the third period of the table of chemical elements
Filling out the fourth period of the table of chemical elements
Filling out the fifth period of the table of chemical elements
Filling out the sixth period of the table of chemical elements
Filling out the seventh period of the table of chemical elements
How to use the periodic table? For an uninitiated person, reading the periodic table is the same as for a gnome looking at the ancient runes of the elves. And the periodic table, by the way, if used correctly, can tell a lot about the world. In addition to serving you well in the exam, it is also simply irreplaceable in solving a huge number of chemical and physical problems. But how to read it? Fortunately, today everyone can learn this art. In this article we will tell you how to understand the periodic table.
The periodic table of chemical elements (Mendeleev's table) is a classification of chemical elements that establishes the dependence of various properties of elements on the charge of the atomic nucleus.
History of the creation of the Table
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was not a simple chemist, if anyone thinks so. He was a chemist, physicist, geologist, metrologist, ecologist, economist, oil worker, aeronaut, instrument maker and teacher. During his life, the scientist managed to conduct a lot of fundamental research in various fields of knowledge. For example, it is widely believed that it was Mendeleev who calculated the ideal strength of vodka - 40 degrees. We don’t know how Mendeleev felt about vodka, but we know for sure that his dissertation on the topic “Discourse on the combination of alcohol with water” had nothing to do with vodka and considered alcohol concentrations from 70 degrees. With all the merits of the scientist, the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements - one of the fundamental laws of nature, brought him the widest fame.
There is a legend according to which a scientist dreamed of the periodic table, after which all he had to do was refine the idea that had appeared. But, if everything were so simple.. This version of the creation of the periodic table, apparently, is nothing more than a legend. When asked how the table was opened, Dmitry Ivanovich himself answered: “ I’ve been thinking about it for maybe twenty years, but you think: I was sitting there and suddenly... it’s done.”
In the mid-nineteenth century, attempts to arrange the known chemical elements (63 elements were known) were undertaken in parallel by several scientists. For example, in 1862, Alexandre Emile Chancourtois placed elements along a helix and noted the cyclic repetition of chemical properties. Chemist and musician John Alexander Newlands proposed his version of the periodic table in 1866. An interesting fact is that the scientist tried to discover some kind of mystical musical harmony in the arrangement of the elements. Among other attempts, there was also Mendeleev’s attempt, which was crowned with success.
In 1869, the first table diagram was published, and March 1, 1869 is considered the day the periodic law was opened. The essence of Mendeleev's discovery was that the properties of elements with increasing atomic mass do not change monotonically, but periodically. The first version of the table contained only 63 elements, but Mendeleev made a number of very unconventional decisions. So, he guessed to leave space in the table for still undiscovered elements, and also changed the atomic masses of some elements. The fundamental correctness of the law derived by Mendeleev was confirmed very soon, after the discovery of gallium, scandium and germanium, the existence of which was predicted by the scientist.
Modern view of the periodic table
Below is the table itself
Today, instead of atomic weight (atomic mass), the concept of atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus) is used to order elements. The table contains 120 elements, which are arranged from left to right in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons)
The table columns represent so-called groups, and the rows represent periods. The table has 18 groups and 8 periods.
- The metallic properties of elements decrease when moving along a period from left to right, and increase in the opposite direction.
- The sizes of atoms decrease when moving from left to right along periods.
- As you move from top to bottom through the group, the reducing metal properties increase.
- Oxidizing and non-metallic properties increase when moving along a period from left to right I.
What do we learn about an element from the table? For example, let's take the third element in the table - lithium, and consider it in detail.
First of all, we see the element symbol itself and its name below it. In the upper left corner is the atomic number of the element, in which order the element is arranged in the table. The atomic number, as already mentioned, is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. The number of positive protons is usually equal to the number of negative electrons in an atom (except in isotopes).
The atomic mass is indicated under the atomic number (in this version of the table). If we round the atomic mass to the nearest integer, we get what is called the mass number. The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Thus, the number of neutrons in a helium nucleus is two, and in lithium it is four.
Our course “Periodical Table for Dummies” has ended. In conclusion, we invite you to watch the thematic video, and we hope that the question of how to use the periodic table of Mendeleev has become more clear to you. We remind you that it is always more effective to study a new subject not alone, but with the help of an experienced mentor. That is why you should never forget about them, who will gladly share their knowledge and experience with you.
Anyone who went to school remembers that one of the compulsory subjects to study was chemistry. You might like her, or you might not like her - it doesn't matter. And it is likely that much knowledge in this discipline has already been forgotten and is not used in life. However, everyone probably remembers D.I. Mendeleev’s table of chemical elements. For many, it has remained a multi-colored table, where certain letters are written in each square, indicating the names of chemical elements. But here we will not talk about chemistry as such, and describe hundreds of chemical reactions and processes, but we will tell you how the periodic table appeared in the first place - this story will be interesting to any person, and indeed to all those who are hungry for interesting and useful information .
A little background
Back in 1668, the outstanding Irish chemist, physicist and theologian Robert Boyle published a book in which many myths about alchemy were debunked, and in which he discussed the need to search for indecomposable chemical elements. The scientist also gave a list of them, consisting of only 15 elements, but admitted the idea that there may be more elements. This became the starting point not only in the search for new elements, but also in their systematization.
A hundred years later, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier compiled a new list, which already included 35 elements. 23 of them were later found to be indecomposable. But the search for new elements continued by scientists around the world. And the main role in this process was played by the famous Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - he was the first to put forward the hypothesis that there could be a relationship between the atomic mass of elements and their location in the system.
Thanks to painstaking work and comparison of chemical elements, Mendeleev was able to discover the connection between the elements, in which they can be one, and their properties are not something taken for granted, but represent a periodically repeating phenomenon. As a result, in February 1869, Mendeleev formulated the first periodic law, and already in March his report “Relationship of properties with the atomic weight of elements” was presented to the Russian Chemical Society by the historian of chemistry N. A. Menshutkin. Then, in the same year, Mendeleev’s publication was published in the journal “Zeitschrift fur Chemie” in Germany, and in 1871, another German journal “Annalen der Chemie” published a new extensive publication by the scientist dedicated to his discovery.
Creating the periodic table
By 1869, the main idea had already been formed by Mendeleev, and in a fairly short time, but for a long time he could not formalize it into any orderly system that would clearly display what was what. In one of the conversations with his colleague A.A. Inostrantsev, he even said that he had everything already worked out in his head, but he couldn’t put everything into a table. After this, according to Mendeleev’s biographers, he began painstaking work on his table, which lasted three days without breaks for sleep. They tried all sorts of ways to organize elements into a table, and the work was also complicated by the fact that at that time science did not yet know about all the chemical elements. But, despite this, the table was still created, and the elements were systematized.
The legend of Mendeleev's dream
Many have heard the story that D.I. Mendeleev dreamed about his table. This version was actively disseminated by the aforementioned Mendeleev’s associate A. A. Inostrantsev as a funny story with which he entertained his students. He said that Dmitry Ivanovich went to bed and in a dream clearly saw his table, in which all the chemical elements were arranged in the right order. After this, the students even joked that 40° vodka was discovered in the same way. But there were still real prerequisites for the story with sleep: as already mentioned, Mendeleev worked on the table without sleep or rest, and Inostrantsev once found him tired and exhausted. During the day, Mendeleev decided to take a short rest, and some time later, he woke up abruptly, immediately took a piece of paper and drew a ready-made table on it. But the scientist himself refuted this whole story with the dream, saying: “I’ve been thinking about it, maybe for twenty years, and you think: I was sitting and suddenly... it’s ready.” So the legend of the dream may be very attractive, but the creation of the table was only possible through hard work.
Further work
Between 1869 and 1871, Mendeleev developed the ideas of periodicity toward which the scientific community was inclined. And one of the important stages of this process was the understanding that any element in the system should have, based on the totality of its properties in comparison with the properties of other elements. Based on this, and also relying on the results of research into changes in glass-forming oxides, the chemist was able to make corrections to the values of the atomic masses of some elements, including uranium, indium, beryllium and others.
Mendeleev, of course, wanted to quickly fill the empty cells that remained in the table, and in 1870 he predicted that chemical elements unknown to science would soon be discovered, the atomic masses and properties of which he was able to calculate. The first of these were gallium (discovered in 1875), scandium (discovered in 1879) and germanium (discovered in 1885). Then the predictions continued to be realized, and eight more new elements were discovered, including: polonium (1898), rhenium (1925), technetium (1937), francium (1939) and astatine (1942-1943). By the way, in 1900, D.I. Mendeleev and the Scottish chemist William Ramsay came to the conclusion that the table should also include elements of group zero - until 1962 they were called inert gases, and after that - noble gases.
Organization of the periodic table
Chemical elements in D.I. Mendeleev’s table are arranged in rows, in accordance with the increase in their mass, and the length of the rows is selected so that the elements in them have similar properties. For example, noble gases such as radon, xenon, krypton, argon, neon and helium are difficult to react with other elements and also have low chemical reactivity, which is why they are located in the far right column. And the elements in the left column (potassium, sodium, lithium, etc.) react well with other elements, and the reactions themselves are explosive. Simply put, within each column, elements have similar properties that vary from one column to the next. All elements up to No. 92 are found in nature, and from No. 93 artificial elements begin, which can only be created in laboratory conditions.
In its original version, the periodic system was understood only as a reflection of the order existing in nature, and there were no explanations as to why everything should be this way. It was only when quantum mechanics appeared that the true meaning of the order of elements in the table became clear.
Lessons in the creative process
Speaking about what lessons of the creative process can be drawn from the entire history of the creation of D. I. Mendeleev’s periodic table, we can cite as an example the ideas of the English researcher in the field of creative thinking Graham Wallace and the French scientist Henri Poincaré. Let's give them briefly.
According to the studies of Poincaré (1908) and Graham Wallace (1926), there are four main stages of creative thinking:
- Preparation– the stage of formulating the main problem and the first attempts to solve it;
- Incubation– a stage during which there is a temporary distraction from the process, but work on finding a solution to the problem is carried out on a subconscious level;
- Insight– the stage at which the intuitive solution is located. Moreover, this solution can be found in a situation that is completely unrelated to the problem;
- Examination– the stage of testing and implementation of a solution, at which this solution is tested and its possible further development.
As we can see, in the process of creating his table, Mendeleev intuitively followed precisely these four stages. How effective this is can be judged by the results, i.e. by the fact that the table was created. And given that its creation was a huge step forward not only for chemical science, but also for all of humanity, the above four stages can be applied both to the implementation of small projects and to the implementation of global plans. The main thing to remember is that not a single discovery, not a single solution to a problem can be found on its own, no matter how much we want to see them in a dream and no matter how much we sleep. In order for something to work out, it doesn’t matter whether it’s creating a table of chemical elements or developing a new marketing plan, you need to have certain knowledge and skills, as well as skillfully use your potential and work hard.
We wish you success in your endeavors and successful implementation of your plans!
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers Z from 1 to 110 . The serial number of an element Z corresponds to the charge of the nucleus of its atom, as well as the number of electrons moving in the field of the nucleus.
Chemical elements, according to the structure of unexcited atoms, are divided into natural aggregates, which is reflected in the periodic system in the form of horizontal and vertical rows - periods and groups.
A period is a sequential series of elements in the atoms of which the same number of energy levels (electronic layers) are filled. The period number indicates the number of electron layers in the atoms of the elements. The periods begin with s-elements, in the atoms of which the first s - electron with a new value of the main quantum number n (hydrogen and alkali metals) appears at a new level, and end with p - elements, atoms of noble gases that have a stable electronic structure of the outer level ns 2 n.p. 6 (in the first period – s – element 2 He).
The difference in the sequence of filling the electronic layers (outer and closer to the core) explains the reason for the different lengths of the periods. 1,2,3 periods are small, 4,5,6,7 are large periods. Small periods contain 2 and 8 elements, large periods - 18 and 32 elements, the seventh period remains incomplete, although it is structurally constructed similarly to the sixth period.
In accordance with the maximum number of electrons in the outer level of unexcited atoms, the elements of the periodic table are divided into eight groups . Element groups are a collection of elements with the same number of valence electrons in an atom. The group number is equal to the number of valence electrons.
The position in the groups of s- and p-elements is determined by the total number of electrons in the outer layer. For example, phosphorus (), which has five electrons on the outer layer, belongs to group V, argon () to VIII, calcium () to group II, etc.
The position in the groups of d - elements is determined by the total number of s - electrons of the outer and d - electrons of the pre-external level. According to this feature, the first six elements of each family of d-elements are located in one of the corresponding groups: scandium in III, manganese in VIII, iron in VIII, etc. Zinc, in which the outermost layer is complete and the outer ones are electrons, belongs to group II. Atoms of d-elements, as a rule, contain two electrons at the outer level, with the exception of Cr, Cu, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Ag, Pt, Au. The latter exhibit an energetically favorable “failure” of one electron from the outer level to the d sublevel of the pre-external level, which occurs when this sublevel is completed to five (half capacity) or ten electrons (maximum capacity), i.e. to the state when all orbitals are each occupied by one electron or when they are each occupied by a pair of electrons. The palladium (Pd) atom experiences a “double dip” of electrons.
Based on the presence of only one electron on the outer layer (due to the “failure” of one of the s - electrons of the outer layer into the pre-outer d - sublayer), copper (), as well as silver and gold, are classified as group I. Cobalt and nickel, rhodium and palladium, iridium and platinum, together with Fe, Ru, and Os, are usually placed in group VIII.
In accordance with the characteristics of the electronic structures of the families of 4f - (lanthanides) and 5f - (actinides) elements are placed in group III.
Groups are divided into subgroups: main (subgroup A) and secondary (subgroup B). Subgroups include elements with similar electronic structures (elements - analogues).s- and p – elements make up the so-calledhomesubgroup, or subgroup A,d– elements –side,or subgroup B.
For example, group IV of the periodic table consists of the following subgroups:
|
Elements of the main subgroup (A) |
Elements of the secondary subgroup (B) |
The periodic table is one of the greatest discoveries of mankind, which made it possible to organize knowledge about the world around us and discover new chemical elements. It is necessary for schoolchildren, as well as for anyone interested in chemistry. In addition, this scheme is indispensable in other areas of science.
This scheme contains all the elements known to man, and they are grouped depending on atomic mass and atomic number. These characteristics affect the properties of the elements. In total, there are 8 groups in the short version of the table; the elements included in one group have very similar properties. The first group contains hydrogen, lithium, potassium, copper, whose Latin pronunciation in Russian is cuprum. And also argentum - silver, cesium, gold - aurum and francium. The second group contains beryllium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, followed by strontium, cadmium, barium, and the group ends with mercury and radium.
The third group includes boron, aluminum, scandium, gallium, followed by yttrium, indium, lanthanum, and the group ends with thallium and actinium. The fourth group begins with carbon, silicon, titanium, continues with germanium, zirconium, tin and ends with hafnium, lead and rutherfordium. The fifth group contains elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, vanadium, below are arsenic, niobium, antimony, then comes tantalum, bismuth and completes the group with dubnium. The sixth begins with oxygen, followed by sulfur, chromium, selenium, then molybdenum, tellurium, then tungsten, polonium and seaborgium.
In the seventh group, the first element is fluorine, followed by chlorine, manganese, bromine, technetium, followed by iodine, then rhenium, astatine and bohrium. The last group is the most numerous. It includes gases such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. This group also includes metals iron, cobalt, nickel, rhodium, palladium, ruthenium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. Next come hannium and meitnerium. The elements that form the actinide series and lanthanide series. They have similar properties to lanthanum and actinium.
This scheme includes all types of elements, which are divided into 2 large groups - metals and non-metals, having different properties. How to determine whether an element belongs to one group or another will be helped by a conventional line that must be drawn from boron to astatine. It should be remembered that such a line can only be drawn in the full version of the table. All elements that are above this line and are located in the main subgroups are considered non-metals. And those below, in the main subgroups, are metals. Metals are also substances found in side subgroups. There are special pictures and photos in which you can familiarize yourself in detail with the position of these elements. It is worth noting that those elements that are on this line exhibit the same properties of both metals and non-metals.
A separate list is made up of amphoteric elements, which have dual properties and can form 2 types of compounds as a result of reactions. At the same time, they manifest both basic and acid properties. The predominance of certain properties depends on the reaction conditions and substances with which the amphoteric element reacts.
It is worth noting that this scheme, in its traditional design of good quality, is colored. At the same time, for ease of orientation, they are indicated in different colors. main and secondary subgroups. Elements are also grouped depending on the similarity of their properties.
However, nowadays, along with the color scheme, the black and white periodic table of Mendeleev is very common. This type is used for black and white printing. Despite its apparent complexity, working with it is just as convenient if you take into account some of the nuances. So, in this case, you can distinguish the main subgroup from the secondary one by differences in shades that are clearly visible. In addition, in the color version, elements with the presence of electrons on different layers are indicated different colors.
It is worth noting that in a single-color design it is not very difficult to navigate the scheme. For this purpose, the information indicated in each individual cell of the element will be sufficient.
The Unified State Exam today is the main type of test at the end of school, which means that special attention must be paid to preparing for it. Therefore, when choosing final exam in chemistry, you need to pay attention to materials that can help you pass it. As a rule, schoolchildren are allowed to use some tables during the exam, in particular, the periodic table in good quality. Therefore, in order for it to bring only benefits during testing, attention should be paid in advance to its structure and the study of the properties of the elements, as well as their sequence. You also need to learn use the black and white version of the table so as not to encounter some difficulties in the exam.
In addition to the main table characterizing the properties of elements and their dependence on atomic mass, there are other diagrams that can help in the study of chemistry. For example, there are tables of solubility and electronegativity of substances. The first can be used to determine how soluble a particular compound is in water at normal temperature. In this case, anions are located horizontally - negatively charged ions, and cations - that is, positively charged ions - are located vertically. To find out degree of solubility of one or another compound, it is necessary to find its components using the table. And at the place of their intersection there will be the necessary designation.
If it is the letter “p”, then the substance is completely soluble in water under normal conditions. If the letter “m” is present, the substance is slightly soluble, and if the letter “n” is present, it is almost insoluble. If there is a “+” sign, the compound does not form a precipitate and reacts with the solvent without residue. If a "-" sign is present, it means that such a substance does not exist. Sometimes you can also see the “?” sign in the table, then this means that the degree of solubility of this compound is not known for certain. Electronegativity of elements can vary from 1 to 8; there is also a special table to determine this parameter.
Another useful table is the metal activity series. All metals are located in it according to increasing degrees of electrochemical potential. The series of metal voltages begins with lithium and ends with gold. It is believed that the further to the left a metal occupies a place in a given row, the more active it is in chemical reactions. Thus, the most active metal Lithium is considered an alkaline metal. The list of elements also contains hydrogen towards the end. It is believed that the metals located after it are practically inactive. These include elements such as copper, mercury, silver, platinum and gold.
Periodic table pictures in good quality
This scheme is one of the largest achievements in the field of chemistry. Wherein there are many types of this table– short version, long, as well as extra-long. The most common is the short table, but the long version of the diagram is also common. It is worth noting that the short version of the circuit is not currently recommended for use by IUPAC.
There was a total More than a hundred types of tables have been developed, differing in presentation, form and graphical presentation. They are used in different fields of science, or are not used at all. Currently, new circuit configurations continue to be developed by researchers. The main option is either a short or long circuit in excellent quality.
Loading...