The purpose of the lecture: to form an idea of the features of different forms of speech (oral and written), about the signs of a codified language, about genres of speech.
Plan
§ 1. Features of oral and written forms of speech.
§ 2. Codified oral speech, its features.
§ 3. Colloquial speech, its features.
§ 4. Vernacular as a form of oral speech, its features.
§ 5. The concept of speech genre.
§ I. Features of oral and written speech
The Russian literary language exists in two forms: oral and written:
Each of these forms has its own characteristics, which are described in detail in the book by L.A. Vvedenskaya and P.P. Chervinsky “Theory and practice of Russian speech” [Rostov n/D, 1997].
Oral speech:
– sounding;
– created in the process of speaking;
– verbal improvisation and some linguistic features are characteristic (freedom in the choice of vocabulary, the use of simple sentences, the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds, repetitions, incompleteness of expression of thoughts).
Written speech:
– graphically fixed;
– can be thought out and corrected in advance;
– some linguistic features are characteristic (the predominance of book vocabulary, the presence of complex prepositions, passive constructions, strict adherence to language norms, the absence of extra-linguistic elements).
Oral speech also differs from written speech in the nature of the addressee. Written speech is usually addressed to those who are absent. The one who writes does not see his reader, but can only mentally imagine him. Written language is not affected by the reactions of those who read it. On the contrary, oral speech presupposes the presence of an interlocutor. The speaker and the listener not only hear, but also see each other. Therefore, spoken language often depends on how it is perceived. The reaction of approval or disapproval, the listeners' remarks, their smiles and laughter - all this can affect the nature of speech and change it depending on this reaction.
The speaker creates, creates his speech immediately. He simultaneously works on content and form. The writer has the opportunity to improve the written text, return to it, change, correct.
The nature of perception of oral and written speech is also different. Written speech is designed for visual perception. While reading, you always have the opportunity to re-read an incomprehensible passage several times, make extracts, clarify the meanings of individual words, and check the correct understanding of the terms in dictionaries. Oral speech is perceived by ear. To reproduce it again, special technical means are needed. Therefore, oral speech must be constructed and organized in such a way that its content is immediately understood and easily absorbed by listeners.
Here is what I. Andronikov wrote about the different perceptions of oral and written speech in the article “The Written and Spoken Word”:
“If a man goes out on a love date and reads an explanation from a piece of paper to his beloved, she will laugh at him. Meanwhile, the same note sent by mail can move her. If a teacher reads the text of his lesson from a book, this teacher has no authority. If an agitator uses a cheat sheet all the time, you can know in advance: such a person does not agitate anyone. If a person in court begins to testify on a piece of paper, no one will believe this testimony. A bad lecturer is considered to be one who reads with his nose buried in the manuscript he brought from home. But if you print the text of this lecture, it may turn out to be interesting. And it turns out that it is boring not because it is meaningless, but because written speech has replaced live oral speech in the department.
What's the matter? The point, it seems to me, is that a written text acts as a mediator between people when live communication between them is impossible. In such cases, the text acts as a representative of the author. But even if the author here can speak himself, the written text becomes an obstacle in communication” [L.A. Vvedenskaya, P.P. Chervinsky. Decree. worker, p. 200–201].
The written form of speech is most often represented by standardized (codified) language, although there are such genres of written speech as statements, letters, reports, announcements, etc., which can reflect spoken language and even vernacular. In the conditions of electronic communication, a new form of speech arises, a new form of speech interaction - written colloquial speech, which implements oral colloquial speech in written form. It is no coincidence that a new term has appeared in Russian studies - “natural written Russian speech,” which means the written version of oral speech. This written form of speech is characterized by spontaneity, informality, ease of communication, just like oral speech [see. about this: Lebedeva N.B. Natural written Russian speech as an object of linguistic research // Bulletin of Barnaul State Pedagogical University. 2001. No. 1, p. 4–10]. This variety includes, for example, the language of chats (chat rooms are one of the most visited places on the Russian Internet). Chats are not controlled from the point of view of compliance with language norms; communication is carried out in real time, the written form of speech is combined with the features of oral conversation. However, this new, emerging, specific type of communication has not yet been sufficiently studied.
A special type of oral speech is radio speech. It is heterogeneous. Its polar varieties are the announcer's reading of official information and the recording of spontaneous speech during the interview process (especially with a hidden microphone). Between them is the speech of a correspondent or commentator, based on written text, but including elements of relaxed, spontaneous speech.
Speeches by famous politicians, artists, scientists and cultural figures in talk shows are an example of everyday oral speech and are perceived by listeners as an authoritative norm.
The oral form of speech is stylistically heterogeneous and manifests itself in three varieties: normalized (codified) speech, colloquial speech, and vernacular. Each of these varieties is characterized by special communicative and stylistic features. Term communicative features of speech correlates with the term communication. Communication in linguistics is communication, message; the functioning of language as a means of human communication, therefore, the communicative features of speech are the features that determine the functioning of language in the process of human interaction.
Term style features means they belong to one of the language styles. Style in linguistics, it is a variety of language, assigned in a given society by tradition to one of the spheres of social life and partially differs from other varieties of the same language in all basic parameters - vocabulary, grammar, phonetics [Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. V.N. Yartseva. M., 1990, p. 494].
§ 2. Codified oral speech, its features
TO communicative features codified (normalized) speech includes:
– formality of communication, attitude towards official communication;
– preparedness of speech.
Style characteristics standardized speech are:
– compliance with literary norms;
– greater correlation with the written form of speech;
– general understandability;
– small possibility of choosing variants of language units.
§ 3. Colloquial speech, its features
TO communicative features colloquial speech includes: - ease of communication; -informal communication environment; - unprepared speech.
Style features colloquial speech are:
– a tendency towards free production of linguistic units and a tendency towards automaticity of speech;
– widespread use of speech stereotypes;
– constituency (reliance on the situation as an integral part of the communicative act);
– variability, mobility of linguistic means.
Colloquial speech, in comparison with a codified language, has features that manifest themselves at all levels of the language system: phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactic.
Phonetic features colloquial speech:
– great variability of pronunciation;
– territorial pronunciation options;
– reduction of pronunciation, loss of sounds (incomplete style). Lexical features colloquial speech:
– stylistically neutral vocabulary is widely represented, words from the national language are used (common vocabulary);
– free formation of new words (occasionalisms – “words on occasion”);
– the use of words with different stylistic connotations (interweaving of book, colloquial, colloquial words);
– expanding the meaning of words in the national language.
Of the many morphological features colloquial language is characterized by:
– lack of declension for complex and compound numerals;
– absence of a simple form of the superlative degree of adjectives (such as most interesting) and complex comparative degree (such as more interesting), little use of short forms of the adjective (such as interesting, significant);
– widespread use of verbs in the form of past tense and present narrative when talking about past events (such as I was walking yesterday and suddenly I see...);
– absence of participles and gerunds;
– widespread use of pronouns;
– widespread use of particles and interjections. Syntactic features colloquial speech:
– ellipticity (omission of sentence members that are easily restored from the situation);
– repetition of words (to express intensification of an action, a sign: I do, I do, I walk, I walk, far, far away);
– unfinished sentences;
– widespread use of plug-in constructions, introductory words and sentences, clarifications, explanations;
– special colloquial constructions: addresses; type evaluation constructs still would! And how! well well!; combining verbs like took it and came.
§ 4. Vernacular as a form of oral speech, its features
The communicative qualities of vernacular are represented by the following features:
– verbal “non-distinction” between the communicative spheres of official and informal communication;
– absence of specific forms of etiquette (polite and emphatically polite treatment) or their confusion;
– mixing of functional and stylistic forms of speech behavior; - free inclusion of units of other forms (colloquial speech,
codified language, professional jargons) depending on the topic and situation (the desire for intuitive thematic differentiation of linguistic means);
– presence of official and casual forms;
– coexistence of a special written form (announcements, statements, letters);
– a significant degree of individual variability in the speech of speakers;
– greater expression of tendencies common to colloquial speech and colloquial speech (tendencies towards saving speech costs and simplification);
– communicative inconsistency of the statement with the addressee’s sphere and impaired feedback from the interlocutors;
– great reliance on the personal speech experience of the speaker [Vvedenskaya L.A., Chervinsky P.P. Decree. worker, p. 208 209].
Style features vernacular are: -appeals to You to strangers;
– mixing You And You within communication with one communicator;
– non-distinction between expressively colored and emphatic (intensified) forms, including them in speech on an equal basis with neutral ones;
– a wide range of forms of address, communicative activity of vocative forms to create the tone of relationships in the act of communication;
– abundance of diminutive forms;
– impaired use in speech of stylistically marked models of codified literary language (usually units of official business style);
– a significant degree of reduction and compression of sounds, greater than in colloquial speech; even less clarity of pronunciation of sounds, often beyond the threshold of their audibility;
– omissions, omissions, structural and semantic disturbance of the utterance, inconsistency of mutual dialogue remarks [Op. worker, p. 209].
§ 5. The concept of speech genre
The genres of oral and written speech are diverse. The term "genre" (from French. qenre– genus, type) in linguistics is usually understood as certain situational and thematic types of speech (genre types).
One of the first researchers of speech genres was M.M. Bakhtin [see: Bakhtin M.M. The problem of speech genres // Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1975], who distinguished in colloquial speech “salon”, “familiar”, “circle”, “family-everyday”, “socio-political” and other genres. He also named short speech genres: greetings, farewells, congratulations, wishes, etc. The presence of such genres M.M. Bakhtin explained by the fact that “every stable everyday situation has a certain organization of the audience, therefore, a certain repertoire of small everyday genres” [Decree. worker, p. 258]. Based on the above, it can be stated that speech genres are diverse, as speech situations and life events are diverse (for example: an interview, a telephone response, letters, health awareness, speaking at a meeting, etc.).
There are a variety of genres of writing that are associated with functional styles of language (see Chapter 6). There are genres of artistic style (novel, story, etc.), genres of official business style (decree, law, order, protocol, etc.) (see Chapter 8), genres of scientific style (article, monograph, abstract and many others) (see Chapter 7), genres of journalistic style (essay, note, feuilleton, etc. (see Chapter 9).
Thus, “a genre can be defined as a type of speech work distinguished within a particular functional style, characterized by the unity of the constructive principle, the originality of the compositional organization of the material and the stylistic structures used” [Kozhin A.N., Krylova O.A., Odintsov V. IN. Functional types of Russian speech. M, 1982, p. 156].
Summary
The Russian literary language exists in two forms: oral and written. Oral speech is speech produced in the process of speaking; is the basis for conversational style. Written speech is speech created using visible (graphic) signs on any material. Official business, journalistic, scientific styles function in oral and written form.
The main features of oral and written speech are:
Standardized speech is considered codified, which is characterized by the following features: compliance with a literary norm, correlation with the written form of speech, general intelligibility, preparedness, and an attitude towards official communication.
Features of colloquial speech are:
Vernacular - words, expressions, forms of word formation and inflection, features of pronunciation that deviate from the literary norm and have a connotation of stylistic decline, rudeness (“head”, “gut”, “we want”, instead of “we want”, etc.). Vernacular speech is characterized by vivid expression, borders on colloquial elements, but is not allowed in a standardized (literary) language. The genres of oral and written forms of speech are diverse and determined by the style of speech and the situation of verbal communication.
Terms for Chapter I
Codification– in linguistics: ordering and fixing language norms; rationing.
Communication– in linguistics: communication, message; the functioning of language as a means of human communication.
Vernacular- a word, word form, phrase that does not correspond to the literary norm, unacceptable in the literary language.
Speech– historically established form of communication; a way of creating and expressing thoughts through language in the process of communication; the process and result of speech and mental activity.
Style– in linguistics: a variety of language, assigned in a given society by tradition to one of the most general spheres of social life and partially different from other varieties of the same language in all basic parameters - vocabulary, grammar, phonetics.
Questions for self-control
1. Name the forms of the Russian literary language.
2. Name the characteristics of the oral form of speech.
3. Name the characteristics of a written form of speech.
4. What varieties are distinguished in oral speech?
5. Name the communicative features of codified speech.
6. Name the communicative features of colloquial speech.
7. Name the communicative features of vernacular.
8. Name the stylistic features of codified speech.
9. Name the stylistic features of colloquial speech.
10. Name the stylistic features of vernacular.
11. What type of oral speech includes a scientific report, a speech at a seminar, a conversation with friends or in family?
Genuine oral speech is created at the moment of speaking. According to V.G. Kostomarov, oral speech is spoken speech, which presupposes the presence of verbal improvisation, which always takes place in the speaking process - to a greater or lesser extent.
In our time, oral speech “has not only surpassed written speech in terms of the possibilities of actual dissemination, but has also acquired an important advantage over it - immediacy, or, as they now say, immediacy of information transmission, which is extremely important for the rapid pace and rhythms of the 20th century. In addition, oral speech acquired a different quality: the ability to be recorded, preserved, preserved and reproduced" (Kostomarov V.G. Problems of modern philology. - M., 1965. - P. 176)
So, oral (spoken) speech is designed for the semantic perception of the spoken speech created at the moment of speaking. Therefore, when we characterize oral speech as spoken, we mean only one of its varieties, associated with the generation of speech. In fact, there is another side, closely related to speaking - listening, perception, understanding of the generated speech. The speaker creates his statement based on its semantic perception. And in this regard, it is not at all indifferent to how much the speaker knows and takes into account the characteristics of the interlocutor, the audience, how fluent he is in oral speech.
The differences between oral and written speech of a psychological and situational nature can be presented in the following comparative table:
|
The speaker and the listener not only hear, but often also see each other |
The writer does not see or hear the person for whom his speech is intended; he can only mentally imagine - more or less concretely - the future reader. |
|
In many cases, it depends on the reaction of the listeners, and may change depending on this reaction. |
Does not depend on the recipient's reaction. |
|
Designed for auditory perception. |
Designed for visual perception |
|
An oral statement can only be reproduced with special technical devices |
The reader can literally re-read what is written as many times as necessary. |
|
The speaker speaks without preparation, correcting during the presentation only what he can notice during the speech. |
The writer can repeatedly return to what he has written and improve it many times. |
Features of oral speech.
Oral speech, as speech created at the moment of speaking, is characterized by two features - redundancy and brevity of utterance (laconicism), which, at first glance, may seem mutually exclusive. Redundancy, i.e. direct repetitions of words, phrases, sentences, more often repetitions of thoughts, when words that are close in meaning are used, other constructions that are correlative in content are explained by the conditions of the creation of oral text, the desire to convey certain information to listeners. Aristotle wrote about this feature of oral speech: “...Phrases not connected by conjunctions and frequent repetition of the same thing in written speech are rightly rejected, and in oral competitions these techniques are also used by orators, because they are stagey.”
Since oral speech is characterized (to a greater or lesser extent) by verbal improvisation, then - depending on various circumstances - oral speech can be more or less smooth, fluid, more or less intermittent. Intermittency is expressed in the presence of involuntary, longer (compared to others) stops, pauses (between words, sentences), in the repetition of individual words, syllables and even sounds, in the “stretching” of a sound like [e] and in expressions like How to say this?
All these manifestations of intermittent speech reveal the process of creating an utterance, as well as the difficulties of the speaker. If there are few cases of intermittency, and they reflect the speaker’s search for the necessary, optimal means of expressing thoughts for a given speech situation, their presence does not interfere with the perception of the statement, and sometimes activates the attention of listeners. But intermittency of oral speech is an ambiguous phenomenon. Pauses, self-interruptions, breakdowns of begun constructions may reflect the state of the speaker, his excitement, lack of composure, and may also indicate certain difficulties of the one who creates the spoken word: that he does not know what to talk about, what to say, and that he finds it difficult to express thoughts.
Functional and stylistic varieties of speech.
There are complex relationships between the forms of language and its styles. Each of the functional styles is used both in oral and written speech. However, some styles are realized primarily in a certain form of language (speech). For example, conversational style is most often associated with the oral form of the language. In this case, as V.G. points out. Kostomarov, the features of the conversational style are especially closely intertwined with the features of the oral form of speech. On the other hand, there are styles that function the same (or almost the same) in both spoken and written language. This primarily applies to the journalistic style, which has features that come from both forms of speech. Thus, oratory, which functions orally, is characterized by a conscious orientation towards means of expression (for example, the use of various figures), which is typical for book styles of written speech. (Kostomarov V.G. Spoken speech: definition and role in teaching // Russian language in the national school. - 1965. No. 1). At the same time, oratory uses such extra-linguistic means of expression as gesture and facial expressions, which are associated with the oral form of oratory.
The scientific style can also be realized in oral speech, for example in a report on a scientific topic, and in written speech in a scientific article. “It is impossible to speak, for example, on scientific topics, even in the most relaxed atmosphere of dialogue, without switching to a scientific style or, at best, to a mixture of a scientific style with elements of colloquial speech” (Lapteva O.A. On the structural components of colloquial speech // Russian language at the national school. – 1965. No. 2).
Actually, many book styles of language (official business, scientific), which arose in connection with writing and developed in written form, now function in oral form. At the same time, naturally, the form of speech leaves a certain imprint on its style. In the oral form, the functioning of book styles allows elements of a conversational style to penetrate into them more easily and naturally, they are more “free” in syntactic constructions, etc. Thus, although “the style of speech is not assigned to the form,” it is not indifferent whether the statement is made orally or in writing, since depending on this, various modifications of the same “functional-stylistic categories” arise. (Vinokur T.G. Stylistic development of modern Russian colloquial speech // In the book: Development of functional styles of the modern Russian language. - M., 1968).
From the beginning of existence, people have been different from animals. Despite the fact that dogs, dolphins, monkeys and other representatives of the animal world communicate with each other in their own way, only humans are able to construct words from letters and form sentences from them. However, speaking is not the only way of communication we use. In addition to the conversation we are accustomed to, our speech can be divided into different categories. What types are there?
Judicial eloquence
As you know, the most interesting type of eloquence is the one that closely borders on the art of persuasion. Probably, each of us knows people who knew how to “persuasively” influence others. In court this skill is needed more than anywhere else. The lawyer and prosecutor, defending their views, try to convince and influence the judge and jury. Such people can give reasons, reason logically and try to influence our moral perception of the situation. As a result, bad things can seem good and vice versa. On the other hand, a correct presentation of the case will not distort it before the court, but will help make the right judicial decision, punishing the criminal and acquitting the innocent. Another thing is that there are people in the world who are capable of sacrificing their moral principles for the sake of money, connections or profit. Possessing the ability to persuade, they can successfully influence others.
Academic eloquence
It is possible to convey scientific knowledge to others if the speaker has certain knowledge. However, it is not enough just to have information; you need to be to some extent a psychologist and understand the audience. Of course, what is important is how a scientist presents his material, how he provides evidence, uses scientific terms and appeals to what his colleagues already know. But it is in his interests to learn to convey the material in an interesting way - so that listeners see a specific benefit for themselves. There is no escape from this, this is how every person works - if we do not see personal benefit for ourselves, we cease to be interested in the subject presented by the speaker. To satisfy the personal “ego” and establish the awareness that “he is being listened to,” special eloquence is not required. However, if a scientist is interested in teaching and transmitting information, he will, of course, make the necessary effort to do so.
Communication skills
Unlike oratory, which is required during formal discussions or speaking in front of an audience, communication skills are vital during live, everyday communication. A sociable person is a person who knows how to find a common language and conduct dialogue with other people. He knows how to see what worries people, touches on these issues and achieves the desired goal. Such a person has insight and behaves tactfully and compliantly.
Communications and types of communication
Don't confuse sociability with communications. These are different types of speech, and their characteristics differ. The latter does not mean the way of conducting a conversation, but its type. There are several types of communication: indirect, frontal and dialogue. The first type is used in joint projects, when two people, for example, are working on the same scheme. Thus, people sometimes may not know each other’s language, but the common goal to which they strive, using their knowledge, is achieved through joint efforts.
Frontal communication involves the presence of a presenter, or leader, who conveys information to others. The one-to-many principle works here. This type of communication is used when a speaker gives a speech to an audience.
Dialogue is a mutual exchange of information between two people, in which one or the other can speak. Cross dialogue can occur when a group of people discusses a problem.
"Inner" speech
The types of speech discussed above and their characteristics were varieties of external speech. However, in addition to external speech, there is also internal speech. Such communication also reveals human speech as an activity. When listing the main types of speech, one should not miss this form. This includes unspoken thinking (or internal monologue). In this case, a person’s only interlocutor is himself. What distinguishes this from dialogical is the desire to cover as much of a specific topic as possible. The dialogue, on the other hand, is mostly filled with simple phrases and rarely carries deep meaning.
Emotional coloring of speech
The correct perception of speech is influenced by the intonation with which a particular expression is pronounced. In sign languages, the role of intonation is played by facial expressions. A complete lack of intonation is observed in written speech. Therefore, in order to give the text at least some emotional coloring, modern social networks have come up with emoticons that can partially convey feelings, provided that the interlocutor is sincere. Smileys are not used in scientific texts, so the author is expected to be particularly thoughtful, logical and beautiful in writing the text. In such cases, for emotional coloring, beautiful figures of speech, adjectives and colorful images are used. However, the most lively speech is, of course, oral speech, thanks to which it is possible to convey the entire palette of feelings and emotions experienced by a person. Only by communicating on a personal level is it possible to hear notes of sincerity, genuine laughter, joy or admiration. However, when communicating with someone, a person may be full of anger, lies and sarcasm. This has a devastating effect on his relationships with others. However, the types, characteristics, functions of speech and its other features considered will help you avoid such extremes.
The art of communication
Along with human progress in other areas, we can perceive speech as an activity or product of labor of both a particular person and an entire society. Realizing the enormous possibilities human communication reveals, some turn it into art. This can be understood only by listing what types of eloquence exist in nature. In this way we will see what a precious gift the ability to communicate is. However, it also happens that a person has various congenital or acquired types of speech disorders.
Oral speech:
Sounding;
Created in the process of speaking;
Characteristic are verbal improvisation and some linguistic features (freedom in the choice of vocabulary, the use of simple sentences, the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds, repetitions, incompleteness of expression of thoughts).
Written speech:
Graphically fixed;
Can be thought out and corrected in advance;
Some linguistic features are characteristic (the predominance of book vocabulary, the presence of complex prepositions, passive constructions, strict adherence to language norms, the absence of extra-linguistic elements).
Oral speech also differs from written speech in the nature of the addressee. Written speech is usually addressed to those who are absent. The one who writes does not see his reader, but can only mentally imagine him. Written language is not affected by the reactions of those who read it. On the contrary, oral speech presupposes the presence of an interlocutor. The speaker and the listener not only hear, but also see each other. Therefore, spoken language often depends on how it is perceived. The reaction of approval or disapproval, the listeners' remarks, their smiles and laughter - all this can affect the nature of speech and change it depending on this reaction.
The speaker creates, creates his speech immediately. He simultaneously works on content and form. The writer has the opportunity to improve the written text, return to it, change, correct.
The nature of perception of oral and written speech is also different. Written speech is designed for visual perception. While reading, you always have the opportunity to re-read an incomprehensible passage several times, make extracts, clarify the meanings of individual words, and check the correct understanding of the terms in dictionaries. Oral speech is perceived by ear. To reproduce it again, special technical means are needed. Therefore, oral speech must be constructed and organized in such a way that its content is immediately understood and easily absorbed by listeners.
This is what I. Andronikov wrote about the different perceptions of oral and written speech in the article “The Written and Spoken Word”:
If a man goes out on a love date and reads an explanation from a piece of paper to his beloved, she will laugh at him. Meanwhile, the same note sent by mail can move her. If a teacher reads the text of his lesson from a book, this teacher has no authority. If an agitator uses a cheat sheet all the time, you can know in advance that such a person does not agitate anyone. If a person in court begins to testify on a piece of paper, no one will believe this testimony. A bad lecturer is considered to be one who reads with his nose buried in the manuscript he brought from home. But if you print the text of this lecture, it may turn out to be interesting. And it turns out that it is boring not because it is meaningless, but because written speech has replaced live oral speech in the department.
What's the matter? The point, it seems to me, is that a written text acts as a mediator between people when live communication between them is impossible. In such cases, the text acts as a representative of the author. But even if the author here can speak himself, the written text becomes a hindrance in communication.
The written form of speech is most often represented by standardized (codified) language, although there are such genres of written speech as statements, letters, reports, announcements, etc., which can reflect spoken language and even vernacular.
The oral form of speech is stylistically heterogeneous and manifests itself in three varieties: normalized (codified) speech, colloquial speech, and vernacular. Each of these varieties is characterized by special communicative and stylistic features (see the concept of style below).
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